Alison M. Konrad

• Vlas, C. O.; Richard, O. C.; Andrevski, G.; Konrad, A. M.; Yang, Y., 2021, "Dynamic capabilities for managing racially diverse workforces: Effects on competitive action variety and firm performance", Journal of Business Research, December 141: 600 - 618.
  Abstract: In this study, we develop and test a model of dynamic capabilities for integrating, building, and reconfiguring racially diverse workforces through diversity-specific management routines, such as mentoring programs, formal network groups, internship-based recruiting practices, and succession planning for racial minorities. We find that diversity management routines (DMR) collectively enhance a firm’s ability to compete with a wider range of competitive actions, which in turn increases financial performance. We also find that the indirect effect of diversity management routines on company performance is conditional on the presence of diversity cognition routines (DCR). Firms fail to benefit from diversity management routines when they do not incorporate diversity cognition practices. Our moderated mediation model contributes to a better understanding of how companies can manage racially diverse human resources (HR) to increase competitive action variety and improve firm performance.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296321008675

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.11.060

• Bhardwaj, A.; Mishra, S. K.; Qureshi, I.; Kumar, K. K.; Konrad, A. M.; Seidel, M. L.; Bhatt, B., 2021, "Bridging Caste Divides: Middle-Status Ambivalence, Elite Closure, and Lower-Status Social Withdrawal", Journal of Management Studies
  Abstract: Network theory and research have identified the powerful dynamic of homophily whereby individuals are more likely to connect with similar rather than dissimilar others. However, less is known about when individuals might connect with dissimilar others to enhance organizational diversity benefits and mitigate social exclusion. This study builds upon prior evidence linking homophily to both elite group closure and lower-status self-segregating social withdrawal to propose a new dynamic of middle-status ambivalence toward homophily, generating a greater propensity toward diversity. Indian society offers a unique context of a legally codified, stable, three-tiered status hierarchy to test the idea that middle-status individuals will develop the most diverse networks. Using a unique longitudinal friendship network dataset, we find empirical support for our prediction, a novel contribution extending classic homophily theory. In addition, due to potent status dynamics we theorize and find that lowest-status group members initiate more ties over time but also exhibit lower tie stability and greater losses of early ties than higher-status group members, resulting in the appearance of lowest-status group homophilous withdrawal. Overall, we advance homophily theory and offer practical suggestions for organizations seeking to enhance social ties across diversity and improve the effectiveness of social inclusion policies.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joms.12763

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joms.12763

• Ali, M.; Grabarski, M.; Konrad, A. M., 2021, "Trickle-down and bottom-up effects of women’s representation in the context of industry gender composition: A panel data investigation", Human Resource Management, August 60(4): 559 - 580.
  Abstract: Little is known about how changing organizational gender composition can enhance women’s representation at lower levels (trickle-down effects) and higher levels (bottom-up effects), and which contextual elements strengthen or weaken these effects. We built a large panel dataset from archives spanning 2010-2019 to test our theorized trickle-down and bottom-up effects across three levels: non-management, lower through middle management (LTMM), and top management team (TMT), including our theorized moderating effects of industry gender composition (male-tilted vs. female tilted vs. balanced). Our panel analyses show that bottom-up effects are strongest in female-tilted industries, consistent with the gender-role congruence explanation that women appear to be more fitting to leadership positions when followers are predominantly women. Trickle-down effects are strongest in male-tilted industries at the lower levels (LTMM to non-management), but strongest in female-tilted industries at the higher levels (TMT to LTMM). Together, these findings suggest that increasing the number of female supervisors and middle managers is effective for bringing more female employees into male-tilted industries. However, the fact that male-tilted industries showed no significant trickle-down effects from TMT to LTMM suggests that senior women in these contexts refrain from acting to support other women’s careers in order to avoid highlighting their gender identity.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22042

• Konrad, A. M.; Richard, O. C.; Yang, Y., 2021, "Both Diversity and Meritocracy: Managing the Diversity-Meritocracy Paradox with Organizational Ambidexterity", Journal of Management Studies
  Abstract: This conceptual paper addresses the diversity challenge organizations face as they seek to enhance opportunities for marginalized groups without damaging fairness perceptions for advantaged groups. This challenge stems from societal-level conflicts between advantaged and marginalized groups which generate a paradoxical tension between the values of diversity and meritocracy. The diversity-meritocracy paradox manifests in interaction as an identity validation-threat system so that events benefitting marginalized groups threaten advantaged groups and vice versa. However, diversity and meritocracy are also interrelated, and fulfilling each of these values supports the other through their beneficial effects on organizational justice. Managing the paradox entails supporting perceptions of process integrity with diversity practices while supporting perceptions of individual competence with meritocracy practices. Balanced combinations of practices create organizational ambidexterity to fulfil diversity and meritocracy pressures simultaneously. Research is needed examining how organizations leverage the interrelatedness of diversity and meritocracy to achieve diversity, inclusion, and justice among employees.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joms.12752

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joms.12752

• Cheung, H.; Goldberg, C.; Konrad, A. M.; Lindsey, A.; Nicholaides, V.; Yang, Y., 2020, "A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Composition Influencing Employees’ Work Outcomes: Implications for Human Resource Development", Human Resource Development International, October 23(5): 491 - 518.
  Abstract: Drawing from Kanter’s tokenism theory, the current meta-analysis provides a statistical synthesis of the research linking gender composition of the workplace to men and women’s evaluative (leadership, rewards, and performance) and affective (interpersonal relationships, stress, and attitudes towards women) outcomes. In addition, we examine the moderating effect of task gender-type on these relationships. Evidence for simple gender composition effects was weak, with only men’s interpersonal outcomes being associated with gender composition. In contrast, we found strong evidence supporting the moderating effect of task gender-type on these relationships for both sexes, across several of the outcomes. Notably, the strongest moderator effect was shown for men’s leadership, with a clear pattern demonstrating that gender composition has a stronger positive effect on this outcome for men performing gender-neutral tasks, compared to men performing masculine tasks. This underscores the importance of task gender- type as a more powerful indicator of workplace gender norms than a numerical representation of men and women. Despite progress towards gender parity in the workplace, gender hegemony remains strong in male-typed tasks as they stand impervious to the effects of gender composition. Results are discussed in light of tokenism theory and its implications on designs of HRD interventions.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2020.1749493

• Han, J. H.; Shin, D.; Castellano, W.; Konrad, A. M.; Kruse, D.; Blasi, J., 2020, "Creating Mutual Gains to Leverage a Racially Diverse Workforce: The Effects of Firm-Level Racial Diversity on Financial and Workforce Outcomes Under the Use of Broad-Based Stock Options", Organization Science, October 31(6): 1515 - 1537.
  Abstract: Despite substantial scholarly attention to workforce demographic diversity, existing research is limited in understanding whether or in what contexts firm-level racial diversity relates to performance and workforce outcomes of the firm. Drawing on social interdependence theory along with insights from social exchange and psychological ownership theories, we propose that the use of broad-based stock options granted to at least half the workforce creates the conditions supporting a positive relationship between workforce racial diversity and firm outcomes. We examine this proposition by analyzing panel data from 155 companies that applied for the “100 Best Companies to Work For” competition with responses from 109,314 employees over the five-year period from 2006 to 2010 (354 company-year observations). Findings revealed that racial diversity was positively related to subsequent firm financial performance and individual affective commitment and was not significantly associated with subsequent voluntary turnover rates, when accompanied by a firm’s adoption of broad-based stock options. However, under the nonuse of broad-based stock options, racial diversity was significantly related to higher voluntary turnover rates and lower employee affective commitment, with no financial performance gains. By documenting the beneficial effects of financial incentives in diverse workplaces, this paper extends theory asserting the value of incentives for performance.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/orsc.2020.1360

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2020.1360

• Shin, D.; Garmendia, A.; Ali, M.; Konrad, A. M.; Madinabeitia-Olabarria, D., 2020, "HRM systems and employee affective commitment: The role of employee gender", Gender in Management: An International Journal, April 35(2): 189 - 210.
  Abstract: Purpose – Despite decades of studies on high-involvement human resource management (HRM) systems, questions remain of whether high-involvement HRM systems can increase the commitment of women. This study contributes to the growing body of research on the cross-level effect of HRM systems and practices on employee affective commitment by considering the moderating role of gender. Design/Methodology – Integrating social exchange theory with gender role theory, this paper proposes that gender responses to HRM practices can be different. The hypotheses were tested using data from 104 small and medium-sized retail enterprises and 6,320 employees from Spain. Findings – The findings generally support the study’s hypotheses, with women’s affective commitment responding more strongly and positively to employees’ aggregated perceptions of a shop-level high-involvement HRM system. The findings imply that a high-involvement HRM system can promote the affective commitment of women. Originality/value – This study investigates the impact of both an overall HRM system and function-specific HRM sub-systems (e.g., training, information, participation, and autonomy). By showing that women can be more positively affected by high-involvement HRM systems, this paper suggests that high-involvement HRM systems can be used to encourage involvement and participation of women.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338984135_HRM_systems_and_employee_affective_commitment_The_role_of_employee_gender_In_press

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/GM-04-2019-0053

• Jones-Morales, J.; Konrad, A. M., 2018, "Attaining Elite Leadership: Career Development and Childhood Socioeconomic Status", Career Development International, June 23(3): 246 - 260.
  Abstract: Purpose: The existence of disadvantaged sub-populations whose talents are under-leveraged is a problem faced by developing and developed countries alike. Life history data revealed that a large proportion of elite business leaders in the Caribbean emerged from childhood poverty (families subsisting on US$1 to $2 a day, 40%). The purpose of this paper was to examine the key factors supporting the career development of elite leaders from a broad socioeconomic spectrum and both genders in order to build a model of career development for elite leadership.
  
  Design/Methodology/Approach: Data were collected via in-depth interviews from a deliberately gender-balanced sample of 39 male and 39 female elite business leaders. Thematic analysis identified consistencies across independent interviews and resulted in a model identifying factors supporting pre-career development as key to eventual attainment of elite leadership.
  
  Findings: Findings indicated that in childhood and youth, proactivity plus talent recognition and mentoring by adults enhanced access to early developmental opportunities. Early career mentoring guided talented youth to build personal drive, self-esteem, altruism and integrity, which created a foundation for developing career capital through values-based action. Altogether, these findings indicate the importance of pre-career relational capital to attainment of elite career success.
  
  Originality/Value: Difficult-to-access elite leaders provided rich information emphasizing the importance of pre-career development in childhood and youth to eventual elite leadership attainment. Virtually all of the elites in the sample remember being identified as talented early in life and consider early messages about drive to achieve as well as support received from parents, teachers, and other interested adults to be critical to their success. Hence, a process of talent recognition and encouragement to excel appear to be crucial for connecting young people to important relational capital allowing them to eventually achieve elite status, particularly those individuals hailing from disadvantaged backgrounds.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/CDI-03-2017-0047

• Konrad, A. M., 2018, "Denial of racism and the Trump Presidency", Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, January 37(1): 14 - 30.
  Abstract: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to document the racist undertones of Donald Trump’s Presidential campaign rhetoric and draw implications regarding its impact on equality, diversity, and inclusion. Most contemporary individuals reject explicitly racist beliefs and strive to present themselves as having egalitarian attitudes toward other races and ethnicities. However, commonly held implicit biases toward historically marginalized racioethnic groups drive negative effect that is often unconscious and unacknowledged. Inconsistency between the conscious and unconscious aspects of contemporary racism generates a population of individuals who are uncomfortable with their attitudes, creating an opening for politicians willing to leverage racist rhetoric and gain support by resolving this inconsistency. Design/methodology/approach - This paper applies social psychological theory and research to address the questions of what attracts otherwise non-racist individuals to racist-tinged rhetoric. The paper also provides theory-based interventions for reducing the attractiveness and impact of racist political campaigns. Findings - Supporters of racist politicians resolve the conflict between their negative feelings toward racioethnic minorities and their espoused anti-racist views by distancing themselves from racist rhetorical content in three ways: by denying that racist statements or actions occurred, denying that the statements or actions are racist, and/or by denying responsibility for racism and its effects. These techniques provide supporters with validation from an authority that they can express their negative affect toward out-groups and still consider themselves to be good people and not racists. Practical implications - Distancing from racism has allowed contemporary American extremists to reframe themselves as victims of closed-minded progressives seeking to elevate undeserving and/or dangerous out-groups at the in-group’s expense. Effective anti-racism techniques are needed to counter implicit biases in order to limit the attractiveness of extremist views. Implicit biases can be effectively reduced through training in counter-stereotypic imaging, stereotype replacement, and structured inter-group interaction. Effectively countering denial of the facts involves affirming the audience’s belief system while building skepticism toward the sources of misinformation. Social implications - While countering racist politicians requires commitment, these efforts are essential for protecting the identity of the USA as a society striving toward equality, diversity, and inclusion. Originality/value - By articulating the social psychological principles underpinning racist-tinged populist rhetoric, this paper explains the attractiveness of racist statements by politicians, which tends to be under-estimated.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EDI-07-2017-0155

• Konrad, A. M.; Seidel, M. D.; Lo, E.; Bhardwaj, A.; Qureshi, I., 2017, "Variety, Dissimilarity, and Status Centrality in MBA Networks: Is the Minority or the Majority More Likely to Network across Diversity?", Academy of Management Learning & Education, September 16(3): 349 - 372.
  Abstract: The value of the networks that MBA students develop is often limited by the tendency of people to favor connections with similar others, resulting in self-segregation among identity groups. In order to identify the origins of network diversity, a key question for theory and practice is whether majority or minority groups are more likely to develop diverse personal networks. This paper provides a partial answer to this question by integrating network theory with three conceptual dimensions of diversity: variety, dissimilarity, and status. This conceptualization suggests that individuals can display three distinct types of diversity in their networks with different theoretical antecedents and outcomes. Consistent with theoretical predictions, we find systematic differences between the networks of high-status majorities and low-status minorities in a longitudinal study of MBA student networks. Specifically, minorities show more variety, greater dissimilarity and lower status centrality in their networks compared to majorities. Tie strength and time period affect the findings in predictable ways. These results demonstrate the value of integrating diversity theory with network theory for understanding the development of inclusive networks in business schools. We conclude by discussing potential remedies to enhance the diversity of MBA student networks.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0256

• Ali, M.; Konrad, A. M., 2017, "Antecedents and consequences of diversity and equality management systems: The importance of gender diversity in the TMT and lower to middle management", European Management Journal, August 35(4): 440 - 453.
  Abstract: Strategic human resource management theory suggests that diversity and equality management (DEM) systems provide a firm with a competitive advantage, leading to superior performance. This study proposes and tests a moderated mediation model focusing on antecedents (i.e. top management team gender diversity) and consequences (i.e. performance) of DEM systems in the context of lower through middle management (LTMM) gender diversity. The model was tested in 248 medium-to large-sized organizations using time-lagged survey and archival data. The findings provide full support for the hypothesis that a gender-diverse top management team is positively associated with DEM systems. The results provide partial support for the following hypotheses: DEM systems are positively associated with performance and this relationship is moderated by LTMM gender diversity and DEM systems mediate the relationship between TMT gender diversity and performance. We discuss theoretical, research and practical implications.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2017.02.002

• Baldridge, D. C.; Konrad, A. M.; Moore, M.; Yang, Y., 2017, "Childhood onset disability, strong ties and employment quality", Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, July 36(4): 290 - 305.
  Abstract: Purpose br Persons with childhood-onset disabilities are among the most marginalized populations, often unemployed or underemployment in jobs providing neither adequate hours for financial self-sufficiency nor fulfillment through skill-utilization. The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which social capital in the form of strong ties with family and friends is associated with enhanced employment outcomes for persons with childhood-onset disabilities. brbr Designmethodologyapproachbr Questioning the current theoretical consensus that strong social ties are unimportant to employment quality, the authors draw on disability research and opportunity, motivation and ability social capital theory to propose a model of the impact of strong ties with family and friends on paid-work-hours and skill-utilization as well as the potential moderating role of gender and disability severity. The authors then test this model using data from 1,380 people with childhood-onset disabilities and OLS regression analysis. brbr Findingsbr As theorized, family-of-origin-size is positively associated with hours worked. Family-of-origin-size is also associated with having more close friends and children. These strong ties, in turn, are positively associated with hours worked. The impact of having more children on hours worked and skill-utilization, however, is positive for men but non-significant for women. brbr Originalityvaluebr This study breaks new ground by focusing on the association between strong ties with family and friends and employment quality for people with childhood-onset disabilities a marginalized and understudied group. Findings further indicate the particular vulnerability of women with disabilities.

  Link(s) to publication:

  https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-11-2016-0093

• Shin, D. J.; Konrad, A. M., 2017, "Causality Between High-Performance Work Systems and Organizational Performance", Journal of Management, April 43(4): 973 - 997.
  Abstract: Previous researchers have questioned whether the association between high-performance work systems (HPWS) and organizational performance indicates causality. Strategic human resource management theories, including the resource-based view of the firm and the behavioral perspective, have provided explanations linking human resource management practices to organizational performance. We add arguments based upon general systems theory to suggest a more complex relationship where performance provides feedback on HPWS in the form of information and resources. This feedback generates both the data and the slack resources needed to support an adaptive process of HPWS implementation. We test the causal associations between HPWS and performance using a large longitudinal data set with three time points. Findings showed that past HPWS positively contributes to later productivity as well as the reverse. The reciprocal relationship supports the need to extend strategic human resource management theory by considering productivity as an antecedent as well as an outcome of human resource management practices.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314544746

• Bhardwaj, A.; Qureshi, I.; Konrad, A. M.; Lee, M. S. H., 2016, "A Two-Wave Study of Self-Monitoring Personality, Social Network Churn, and In-Degree Centrality in Close Friendship and General Socializing Networks", Group & Organization Management, August 41(4): 526 - 559.
  Abstract: We examine the role of self-monitoring personality in shaping network change in two important types of social relationships. In a two-wave social network study, we find that individuals with higher levels of self-monitoring derive persistent personality-linked in-degree centrality benefits in the general socializing network but have fading benefits over time in the close friendship network. Simultaneous examination of the formation and dissolution of relationships over time (network churn) reveals that this pattern of network change is shaped by differential reactions of relationship partners to individuals based upon level of self-monitoring in the two network types. Overall, by incorporating the dynamic reactions of relationship partners, the findings contribute to the understanding of the complex relationship between personality and social network development.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1059601115608027

• Zhu, Y.; Konrad, A. M.; Jiao, H. J., 2016, "Violation and Activation of Gender Expectations: Do Chinese Managerial Women Face a Narrow Band of Acceptable Career Guanxi Strategies?", Asia Pacific Journal of Management, March 33(1): 53 - 86.
  Abstract: We proposed a conceptual model arguing that stereotype violation and stereotype activation combine to create a narrow band of acceptable career strategies for women in management. Utilizing a sample of 324 Chinese managers (162 pairs of women and men matched on education, years of work experience, and employing organization), we examined the effects of gender on three career development outcomes: number of subordinates supervised, life satisfaction, and career satisfaction. Results indicated that being female had a significant negative main effect on all three outcomes. Ten significant interactions supported the theoretical effects of both stereotype violation and activation on women’s managerial career development, consistent with our conceptual model. The findings suggest that Chinese women in management face a narrow band of acceptable career strategies, especially in the area of creating social capital. The results highlight the importance of testing both stereotype violation and stereotype activation effects and of creating social capital through appropriate networking.

  Link(s) to publication:

  http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10490-015-9435-y

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